Quran’s Dhul Qarnayn and the Alexander Legends: The Sun in the Muddy Spring and the Wall of Gog and Magog

“And they, the Jews, question you concerning Dhū’l-Qarnayn, whose name was Alexander; he was not a prophet. Say: ‘I shall recite, relate, to you a mention, an account, of him’, of his affair.” Tafsir al-Jalalayn on 18:83 (d. 1505 AD)

“You came to ask me about Dhul-Qarnayn, and what you find in your book: He was a young man from the Romans, so he came and built the city of Alexandria in Egypt” Tafsir al-Tabari on 18:83 (d. 923 AD)

“The Account of Darius [Dārā] the Elder and His Son Darius the Younger. How He Perished and the Account of Alexander [Dhū-l-Qarnayn]” p. 87

“Philip, the father of Alexander the Greek, reigned over a Greek land known as Macedonia and other lands that he had occupied. He concluded a peace treaty with Darius, under which he paid an annual tribute to the latter. Philip died, and his son Alexander succeeded him.” p. 89 al-Tabari, History of al-Tabari, vol. 4, pp. 87-95 (d. 923 AD)

“‘And they ask you about Dhul-Qarnayn,’ meaning Alexander Caesar, also known as the King who seized [control of the region of] Qaf (a mountain encircling the world).” Tafsir Muqatil ibn Sulayman on 18:83 (d. 767 AD)

“Ibn Hisham said: His name was Alexander, and he was the one who built Alexandria, which was therefore named after him.” Tafsir al-Qurtubi on 18:83 (d. 1273 AD) Ibn Hisham (d. 833 AD), Sirat Rasul Allah, p. 719 (n. 186)

“Since it is established by the Quran that Dhul-Qarnayn was a man who ruled the entire earth, or nearly all of it, and since historical knowledge confirms that the only figure fitting this description was Alexander, it must be concluded with certainty that Dhul-Qarnayn is Alexander, son of Philip the Greek.” al-Razi, Mafatih al-Ghayb on 18:84 (d. 1210 AD)

“Thus, quite strikingly, almost every element of this short Qur’anic tale finds a more explicit and detailed counterpart in the Syriac Alexander Legend. In both texts the related events are given in precisely the same order.

Already earlier several cases of specific words that are exact matches between the Syriac and the Arabic were indicated. The water in the place where the sun sets is ‘fetid’ in both texts, a perfect coincidence of two uncommon synonyms (Syriac saryā, Arabic ḥamiʾa).

Also, the wall that Alexander builds is made specifically of iron and brass in both texts.

We are told in the Syriac that God will ‘gather together the kings and their hosts,’ which finds a nearly perfect match in Q 18:99: ‘the horn will be blown and we shall gather them together.’

The proper names of Yājūj and Mājūj are not uniquely matched by this Syriac text (where they appear as Agog and Magog), for their tradition is derived from the books of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse of John, but they do still count as specific word correspondences between the Syriac and Arabic texts in question here.

In the Qur’ān God is characterized as saying, ‘We shall leave them on that day surging like waves against each other,’ wa-taraknā baʿḍahum yawmaʾidhin yamūju fī baʿḍin, while the Syriac says similarly, ‘and kingdoms will fall upon each other,’ w-naplān malkwātā ḥdā ʿal ḥdā.” p. 181

“The Qur’anic account must draw from the Syriac account, if not directly then by oral report.” p. 190 van Bladel, “The Alexander Legend in the Qur’ān 18:83-102”

“The Ḏū-l-Qarnayn pericope displays a number of narrative elements that are unique to the Neṣḥānā [Syriac Alexander Legend].

The structure of the Qurʾānic narrative, for example, reflects the Syriac author’s blending of previously disparate traditions—that of Alexander’s iron gates and that of the hero’s travels to the ends of the earth.

Further editorial choices made by the Syriac author, such as his exclusion of Alexander’s unsuccessful attempt to reach Paradise, are also reflected in the Qurʾānic pericope.

At the same time, the Qurʾān mirrors the way in which the author of the Neṣḥānā [Syriac Alexander Legend] understood and adapted the ancient tradition of the gates allegedly erected by Alexander in the Caucasus. Specifically, it reproduces the reading of this motif through the lens of scriptural passages about Gog and Magog and the consequential attribution of an eschatological valence to the gate erected by the hero.” Tesei, “The Syriac Legend of Alexander’s Gate,” p. 171

“That the Qurʾānic narrative specifically elaborates on the Alexander story in the Syriac work is confirmed by an important detail that has escaped the attention of previous scholars, namely, the material composition of the gate erected by the two protagonists, Alexander and Ḏū-l-Qarnayn, in the Syriac and Arabic texts, respectively. Like Alexander in the Syriac work, Ḏū-l-Qarnayn constructs his barrier from iron and bronze components. This coincidence is significant, since all references to the motif of Alexander’s (non-apocalyptic) gates in sources earlier than the Neṣḥānā [Syriac Alexander Legend] mention only iron as the metal from which the barrier was made.” Tesei, “The Syriac Legend of Alexander’s Gate,” pp. 171-172
“Note that Syriac language does not distinguish between bronze and brass. Consequently, the Arab term qiṭr (“brass”) in Q 18:96 appears as an exact translation of the Syriac word nḥšʾ (“bronze/brass”).” Tesei, “The Syriac Legend of Alexander’s Gate,” p. 207, n. 11

“This book is the first monographic study entirely consecrated to the Syriac text entitled Neṣḥānā d-Aleksandrōs (also known as the Syriac Alexander Legend), a seminal text for later Christian and Muslim apocalyptic traditions. While the scholarly consensus commonly dates the Neṣḥānā to the time of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641 CE), this study demonstrates that an earlier version of the text was produced during the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565).” Tesei, “The Syriac Legend of Alexander’s Gate,” Abstract
“Tommaso Tesei provides the most definitive study of the Syriac Alexander Legend to date. Although this text may possibly be unfamiliar to some scholars of late antiquity, it is highly important for its direct influence on the Qur’an (Q 18.83-101). Yet the significance of this sixth-century apocalypse greatly exceeds its appropriation in Qur’an.” Stephen J. Shoemaker, University of Oregon (Review)

“This study examines the significant connection between the Qurʾānic narrative and the Neṣḥānā d-Aleksandros, a sixth-century Syriac text that reimagines Alexander the Great as a monotheistic Christian king and apocalyptic hero. The evidence presented here suggests that the Neṣḥānā [Syriac Alexander Legend] served as a key source of inspiration for the Qurʾānic portrayal of Dhū-l-Qarnayn, supporting his identification as an Alexander figure reinterpreted through the lens of Syriac literary and ideological traditions.” Tesei, “And they ask you about Dhū-l-Qarnayn.”

“The Qurʾān’s accounts of the Companions of the Cave and the travels of Dhū ’l-Qarnayn strongly resonate with popular late antique Syriac Christian stories, namely, accounts of the so-called Sleepers of Ephesus and of Alexander the Great ... it is likely that oral versions of these narratives preceded their surviving written accounts and that the Qurʾān recalled aspects of these oral versions for its own purposes.” Griffith, “The Narratives of Sūrat al-Kahf”

“The story of Dhū al-qarnayn, that is, Alexander the Great, from sūra 18:83–101, borrows directly from the Syriac Alexander Legend, as discussed already in Chapter 3. The Qurʾān’s adaptation of this Christian text affords definitive proof that Muhammad and his followers were not only aware of but seemingly engaged with the tradition of Byzantine imperial eschatology.” Shoemaker, “The Apocalypse of Empire,” p. 150

Same motif across the Syriac Alexander Legend and the hadiths: the sun enters the sea/spring, then prostrates before God.

“Do you know where this sets? It sets in a hot spring.” Sahih al-Jami 7026 (al-Albani: Authentic) Musnad Ahmad 21459 (al-Arna’ut: Authentic Chain)

The Prophet (ﷺ) asked me at sunset, “Do you know where the sun goes (at the time of sunset)?” I replied, “Allah and His Apostle know better.” He said, “It goes (i.e. travels) till it prostrates Itself underneath the Throne and takes the permission to rise again, and it is permitted and then (a time will come when) it will be about to prostrate itself but its prostration will not be accepted, and it will ask permission to go on its course but it will not be permitted, but it will be ordered to return whence it has come and so it will rise in the west. And that is the interpretation of the Statement of Allah: “And the sun Runs its fixed course For a term (decreed). that is The Decree of (Allah) The Exalted in Might, The All-Knowing.” (36.38)” Sahih Bukhari 3199 Sahih Muslim 159

“And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise.” Quran 36:38

Syriac Alexander Legend:

“Alexander and his troop set out between the fetid sea and the shining sea until reaching the place where the Sun enters the window of heaven — because the Sun is the servant of the Lord and never interrupts its journey, at neither night nor day. The place from where it rises is above the sea. When it is about to rise the people who dwell there flee and hide in the sea in order of not being burnt by its rays. It then crosses over the middle of heavens until reaching the place where it enters the window of heaven. Where it passes by are terrifying mountain peaks. Those who dwell there have caves dug in the rock. As soon as they see the Sun rising, men and birds flee from before it and hide in the caves, because the stones burnt by its flames roll down and incinerate at once whatever they touch, be it humans or beasts. As soon as the Sun enters the window of heaven it prostrates before God and venerates his creator. He then travels and descends the entire night in the skies until it finds itself at the place where it rises.”Tesei, “The Syriac Legend of Alexander’s Gate,” pp. 174-175

Quran’s Dhul Qarnayn Story:
Quran 18:83-102 (only 20 verses)

Syriac Alexander Legend:
Budge, Syriac Alexander Legend, pp. 144-158 (15 pages)

“And ˹remember˺ when Moses said to his young assistant, “I will never give up until I reach the junction of the two seas, even if I travel for ages.” But when they ˹finally˺ reached the point where the seas met, they forgot their ˹salted˺ fish, and it made its way into the sea, slipping away ˹wondrously˺. When they had passed further, he said to his assistant, “Bring us our meal! We have certainly been exhausted by today’s journey.” He replied, “Do you remember when we rested by the rock? ˹That is when˺ I forgot the fish. None made me forget to mention this except Satan. And the fish made its way into the sea miraculously.” Moses responded, “That is ˹exactly˺ what we were looking for.” So they returned, retracing their footsteps. Quran 18:60-64

Legend from the Greek Alexander Romance (c. 4th-5th century):

Alexander finds himself facing a land “where the sun does not shine … called the land of the blessed” (2.39). He marches into this strange land until he comes upon a place where they find a “shining spring, πηγὴ διαυγής, whose water flashed like lightning, ἤστραπεν ὡς ἀστραπή” (2.39). The narrative continues:

“And, having become hungry, I wanted to take some food; and, having called my cook, I said to him: ‘Prepare us something to eat.’ And he, having taken a dried fish, went to the shining water of the spring to wash the food. And the moment it was put in the water it came to life and it escaped out of the cook’s hands. And all the places there had water. And my cook revealed to no one what had happened.” Cook, “A Watery Folktale in the Alexander Romance,” p. 9

Islamic Studies scholar Tommaso Tesei:

“Specifically, the fish’s escape represents an allusion to the resurrection of a salt fish after Alexander’s cook washes it in the water of life. The most ancient versions of this story are found in three sources preceding or contemporaneous to the rise of Islam: the Rec. β of the Alexander Romance (fourth/fifth century), the Babylonian Talmud (Tamīd, 32a–32b), and the so-called Syriac Alexander Song (ca. 630–635). Muslim exegetes introduced some elements of this legend in their explanation of the narrative told in the Quran. In fact, the fish’s escape episode is usually related to the motif of the water of life. Western scholars, too, almost unanimously consider this story of Alexander to be behind the Quranic account.” Tesei, “Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity,” p. 4

“In fact, the enigmatic episode acquires sense only if read in light of the dynamic described in the legend of the water of life, and the extreme vagueness with which the Quran describes the episode suggests that its audience was expected to be acquainted with the Alexander tale.” Tesei, “Some Cosmological Notions from Late Antiquity,” p. 5

Islamic Studies scholar Gabriel Said Reynolds:

“However, in light of this episode’s relationship to the Alexander literature, this phrase more likely means the point at which the waters in the heavens and the waters on earth meet (on this see Gen 1:6–7), that is, the end of the world (n.b. in this regard how Alexander, or Dhū l-Qarnayn, goes to the westernmost [v. 86] and easternmost [v.90] points on earth, something which reflects a flat earth.)” p. 464 (on Quran 18:60–64)

“18:83–101 overview This episode is also related to legends connected to Alexander (it is presumably not a coincidence that two Alexander accounts appear in the same Sura in the Qurʾān), but in this case to the Syriac Christian Neṣḥānā d-leh d-Aleksandrōs” p. 467 (on Quran 18:83–101) Reynolds, The Qurʾān and the Bible, pp. 464, 467-471